The Holy Roman Empire at its greatest territorial extent (, Post-Carolingian Eastern Frankish Kingdom, Rise of the territories after the Hohenstaufens, French Revolutionary Wars and final dissolution, The Holy Roman Empire and the imperial families' dynastic empires, Some historians refer to the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire as 800, with the crowning of, Regensburg, seat of the 'Eternal Diet' after 1663, came to be viewed as the unofficial capital of the Empire by several European powers with a stake in the Empire France, England, the Netherlands, Russia, Sweden, Denmark and they kept more or less permanent envoys there because it was the only place in the Empire where the delegates of all the major and mid-size German states congregated and could be reached for lobbying, etc. Maliban sa pagkuha ng suporta sa mamamayan, ano pa ang nakuha ni Clovis? Nevertheless, it is believed the demographic disaster of the Thirty Years War meant that the population of the Empire in the early 17th century was similar to what it was in the early 18th century; by one estimate, the Empire didn't exceed 1618 levels of population until 1750. The emperor suddenly died in 1197, leading to the partial collapse of his empire. Nevertheless, their participation was formally acknowledged only as late as 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years' War. According to Peter H. Wilson, the female figure of Germania was reinvented by the emperor as the virtuous pacific Mother of Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. The Teutonic Knights were invited to Prussia by Duke Konrad of Masovia to Christianize the Prussians in 1226. Upon Henry the Fowler's death, Otto, his son and designated successor,[76] was elected king in Aachen in 936. It is also important to distinguish between the universalist and localist conceptions of the empire, which have been the source of considerable controversy among historians. Pope Innocent III, who feared the threat posed by a union of the empire and Sicily, was now supported by Frederick II, who marched to Germany and defeated Otto. The second class, the Council of Princes, consisted of the other princes. As he refused the rights of an Imperial Elector as King of Bohemia (which provided him with half of his revenue[221]), he was able to give Bohemia (as well as associated territories such as Upper and Lower Alsatia, Silesia and Moravia) the same privileged status as Austria, therefore affirming his superior position in the Empire. Albert was assassinated in 1308. These were partly a result of the explosion in population; they also concentrated economic power at strategic locations. For histories of the territories governed at various times by the empire, see France; Germany; Italy. [175] Charles V later gave most of the Burgundian lands to the Spanish branch. Unlike the situation in more centralized countries, the decentralized nature of the Empire made censorship difficult. paggalang in more languages. [132][224][225][133] Wilson notes that, "In the early 1520s the Reichstag hesitated to vote aid for Hungarys King Louis II, because it regarded him as a foreign prince. The Peace of Westphalia abrogated that principle by stipulating that the official religion of a territory was to be what it had been on 1 January 1624, considered to have been a "normal year". The imperial coronation of Otto I by Pope John XII in St Peter's puts in place the formal role of a Holy Roman emperor. gay seguridad sa bansa. In the early 1500s, he was true master of the Empire, although his power weakened during the last decade before his death. Omissions? More meanings for pagsilang. in Indonesian respectuous. This phenomenon contributed to the fragmentation of sovereignty, in which imperial vassals remained semi-sovereign, while strengthening the interconnections (and chances of mutual interference) between the Kingdom of Germany and the Empire in general with other kingdoms such as Denmark and Sweden, who accepted the status of imperial vassals on behalf of their German possessions (which were subjected to imperial laws). Another new concept of the time was the systematic founding of new cities by the Emperor and by the local dukes. After the Carolingian king Louis the Child died without issue in 911, East Francia did not turn to the Carolingian ruler of West Francia to take over the realm but instead elected one of the dukes, Conrad of Franconia, as Rex Francorum Orientalium. [93], Otto died young in 1002, and was succeeded by his cousin Henry II, who focused on Germany. [251], The Habsburg royal family had its own diplomats to represent its interests. [70] The last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. [44] The new title was adopted partly because the Empire lost most of its territories in Italy and Burgundy to the south and west by the late 15th century,[46][full citation needed] but also to emphasize the new importance of the German Imperial Estates in ruling the Empire due to the Imperial Reform. According to Brady Jr. though, under all the glitter, one problem arose: the government showed an inability to deal with the German immigrant waves into Bohemia, thus leading to religious tensions and persecutions. 65 ecclesiastical states with 14 percent of the total land area and 12 percent of the population; 45 dynastic principalities with 80 percent of the land and 80 percent of the population; 60 dynastic counties and lordships with 3 percent of the land and 3.5 percent of the population; 60 imperial towns with 1 percent of the land and 3.5 percent of the population; Imperial knights' territories, numbering into the several hundreds, with 2 percent of the land and 1 percent of the population. [127], The vision for a simultaneous reform of the Empire and the Church on a central level began with Sigismund (reigned 14331437, King of the Romans since 1411), who, according to historian Thomas Brady Jr., "possessed a breadth of vision and a sense of grandeur unseen in a German monarch since the thirteenth century". The first title that Charlemagne is known to have used, immediately after his coronation in 800, is Charles, most serene Augustus, crowned by God, great and pacific emperor, governing the Roman empire. This clumsy formula, however, was soon discarded. [166][222] The Habsburgs also tried to mobilize imperial aid for Hungary (which, throughout the sixteenth century, cost the dynasty more money in defence expenditure than the total revenue it yielded). [142] In practice, it became the basic law throughout Germany, displacing Germanic local law to a large extent, although Germanic law was still operative at the lower courts. [252] The kings of Denmark, Great Britain, and Sweden had land holdings in Germany and so had representation in the Diet itself. Jahrhundert unter dem Einfluss der Konfessionen", "H-German Roundtable on Smith, Germany: A Nation in Its Time Before, During, and After Nationalism, 15002000 | H-German | H-Net", "Forster on Brady Jr., 'German Histories in the Age of Reformations, 14001650' | H-German | H-Net", "A troubled marriage. Ngunit, masasabi rin na ang pagsisimula ng tinawag na Holy Roman Empire ay nagmula sa kamay ng mgaFranks, pangkat ng mga barbaro na lumusob sa Gaul (ngayon ay France). From the High Middle Ages onwards, the Holy Roman Empire was marked by an uneasy coexistence with the princes of the local territories who were struggling to take power away from it. The Empire also had two courts: the Reichshofrat (also known in English as the Aulic Council) at the court of the King/Emperor, and the Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court), established with the Imperial Reform of 1495 by Maximillian I. "Mediatization" was the process of annexing the lands of one imperial estate to another, often leaving the annexed some rights. In 1282, Rudolf I thus lent Austria and Styria to his own sons. Religion. Bumagsak ang Kanlurang Imperyong Roman noong 476 AD nang mapaslang ang huling emperador na si Romulus Augustus sa isang labanan. An argument for continuity should not, however, be confused with a claim for stasis. Eventually Conrad's death was followed by the Interregnum, during which no king could achieve universal recognition, allowing the princes to consolidate their holdings and become even more independent as rulers. Marriage and inheritance strategies, following by (usually defensive) warfare, played a great role both for the Luxemburgs and the Habsburgs. One of the most famous Passiontide hymns of all times, it was traditionally used in the good friday ceremony of the . 962. [122] Thomas Brady Jr. opines that Charles IV's intention was to end contested royal elections (from the Luxembourghs' perspective, they also had the advantage that the King of Bohemia had a permanent and preeminent status as one of the Electors himself). Also known as: Heiliges Rmisches Reich, Sacrum Romanum Imperium. [35] The modern view favours Otto as the true founder. The Army of the Holy Roman Empire (German Reichsarmee, Reichsheer or Reichsarmatur; Latin exercitus imperii) was created in 1422 and as a result of the Napoleonic Wars came to an end even before the Empire. PANGE LINGUA GLORIOSI The opening words of two liturgical hymns. 5: Holy Roman Empire. in Samoan faaaloalo. Also it was recommended that their sons learn the imperial languages German, Latin, Italian, and Czech. The number of territories represented in the Imperial Diet was considerable, numbering about 300 at the time of the Peace of Westphalia. Before this, cities had only existed in the form of old Roman foundations or older bishoprics. in Cebuano respectuous. [254], Overall population figures for the Holy Roman Empire are extremely vague and vary widely. There were also some areas ruled directly by the Emperor. fought between the forces of the Holy Roman Empire, led by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, and the Lombard League. Ano ang pangunahing kabuhayan sa loob ng isang manor? [81] In 955, Otto won a decisive victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld. From Maximilian's time, as the "terminuses of the first transcontinental post lines" began to shift from Innsbruck to Venice and from Brussels to Antwerp, in these cities, the communication system and the news market started to converge. Contradicting the traditional view concerning that designation, Hermann Weisert has argued in a study on imperial titulature that, despite the claims of many textbooks, the name "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" never had an official status and points out that documents were thirty times as likely to omit the national suffix as include it. The German mediatization was the series of mediatizations and secularizations that occurred between 1795 and 1814, during the latter part of the era of the French Revolution and then the Napoleonic Era. [70] In the ninth century, Charlemagne and his successors promoted the intellectual revival, known as the Carolingian Renaissance. The Roman Law was made binding in German courts, except in the case it was contrary to local statutes. A number of cities held official status, where the Imperial Estates would summon at Imperial Diets, the deliberative assembly of the empire. The empire was dissolved on 6 August 1806, when the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of Austria) abdicated, following a military defeat by the French under Napoleon at Austerlitz (see Treaty of Pressburg). During the final phase of the reign of Emperor Frederick III (ruled 14521493), Imperial Reform began. Philip thought he had the backing of the French Pope, After the 13th century, the relevance of the Reichsgut faded, even though some parts of it did remain until the Empire's end in 1806. "[50], In the modern period, the Empire was often informally called the German Empire (Deutsches Reich) or Roman-German Empire (Rmisch-Deutsches Reich). [19], From the accession of Otto I in 962 until the twelfth century, the Empire was the most powerful monarchy in Europe. When he died in 1137, the princes again aimed to check royal power; accordingly they did not elect Lothair's favoured heir, his son-in-law Henry the Proud of the Welf family, but Conrad III of the Hohenstaufen family, the grandson of Emperor Henry IV and thus a nephew of Emperor Henry V. This led to over a century of strife between the two houses. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control. After Ferdinand died in 1564, his son Maximilian II became Emperor, and like his father accepted the existence of Protestantism and the need for occasional compromise with it. This process began in the 11th century with the Investiture Controversy and was more or less concluded with the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. [64][full citation needed], In 768, Pepin's son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an extensive expansion of the realm. [45], The exact term "Holy Roman Empire" was not used until the 13th century, before which the empire was referred to variously as universum regnum ("the whole kingdom", as opposed to the regional kingdoms), imperium christianum ("Christian empire"), or Romanum imperium ("Roman empire"),[38] but the Emperor's legitimacy always rested on the concept of translatio imperii,[f] that he held supreme power inherited from the ancient emperors of Rome. While concentrated on establishing a modern, centralized state in Sicily, he was mostly absent from Germany and issued far-reaching privileges to Germany's secular and ecclesiastical princes: in the 1220 Confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis, Frederick gave up a number of regalia in favour of the bishops, among them tariffs, coining, and fortification. Since 1508 (emperor Maximilian I) Imperial elections took place in Frankfurt am Main, Augsburg, Rhens, Cologne or Regensburg. [97][98][99][100] Otto's early death though made his reign "the tale of largely unrealized potential".[101][102]. Foreign powers, including France and Sweden, intervened in the conflict and strengthened those fighting the Imperial power, but also seized considerable territory for themselves. This title, however, was not used by Otto IIs predecessors, from Charlemagne (or Charles I) to Otto I, who simply employed the phrase imperator augustus (august emperor) without any territorial adjunct. The first class, the Council of Electors, consisted of the electors, or the princes who could vote for King of the Romans. What does pagsilang mean in Filipino? For most of his reign, he considered reform as a threat to his imperial prerogatives. Now, although excommunicated, Frederick led the Sixth Crusade in 1228, which ended in negotiations and a temporary restoration of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. In the long run, the two Courts functioned in parallel, sometimes overlapping. It can be regarded as a political institution, or approached from the point of view of political theory, or treated in the context of the history of Christendom as the secular counterpart of a world religion. The Hohenstaufen rulers increasingly lent land to ministerialia, formerly non-free servicemen, who Frederick hoped would be more reliable than dukes. In 1312, Henry VII of the House of Luxembourg was crowned as the first Holy Roman Emperor since Frederick II. The empire of Charlemagne may have had as many as 20 million people. Virgil Corbo, dated the ruins precisely to the Herodian and Roman times, and remnants of ancient oil presses found under the two monasteries built there demonstrate that the place was indeed inhabited at the time Jesus was born. 337 CE. Topographical development in the fifteenth century made Antwerp a port city. The Iberian-Moroccan caliph accepted his claims over the suzerainty over Tunis and Tripolitania and paid tribute. The Imperial Regalia, also called Imperial Insignia [citation needed] (in German Reichskleinodien, Reichsinsignien or Reichsschatz), are regalia of the Holy Roman Emperor.The most important parts are the Crown, the Imperial orb, the Imperial sceptre, the Holy Lance and the Imperial Sword.Today they are kept at the Imperial Treasury in the Hofburg palace in Vienna, Austria. Ang Holy Roman Empire ay ang tinaguriang Gitnang Panahon o kilala rin bilang Medieval Period na kung saan naging sentro ng aspetong kultura ang bansang Europa. But Maximilian resented the new organization, while the Estates failed to support it. "The Permanent Imperial Diet in European Context, 16631806". The Emperor had to be male and of noble blood. It was during this time that the Empire gained most of its institutions, which endured until its final demise in the nineteenth century.[39][40]. Rules from the past no longer adequately described the structure of the time, and a reinforcement of earlier Landfrieden was urgently needed. [205] By the Reform era, the Empire, in its nature, was defensive and not aggressive, desiring of both internal peace and security against invading forces, a fact that even warlike princes such as Maximilian I appreciated. [73] On his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony (r. 91936), who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. It lasted until 1866 when Prussia founded the North German Confederation, a forerunner of the German Empire which united the German-speaking territories outside of Austria and Switzerland under Prussian leadership in 1871. In Germany, the Emperor had repeatedly protected Henry the Lion against complaints by rival princes or cities (especially in the cases of Munich and Lbeck). Despite these anomalies and others, the empire, at least in the Middle Ages, was by common assent, along with the papacy, the most important institution of western Europe. His reign in Bohemia is often considered the land's Golden Age. In the Holy Roman Empire, the main dukes and bishops of the kingdom elected the King of the Romans. [160][161] The development of the printing industry together with the emergence of the postal system (the first modern one in the world[162]), initiated by Maximilian himself with contribution from Frederick III and Charles the Bold, led to a revolution in communication and allowed ideas to spread. Nagbuhat ang dalawang magkapatid na ito mula sa lahi ng . [189] Charles initiated his reign in Castile and Aragon, a union which evolved into Spain, in conjunction with his mother Joanna of Castile. Charlemagne's good service to the Church in his defense of Papal possessions against the Lombards made him the ideal candidate. [137][136][138], The most important governmental changes targeted the heart of the regime: the chancery. The army was one third forces of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth and two thirds forces of the Holy Roman Empire. A. Charlemagne C. Clovis B. Charles Martel D. Pepin the Short 12. [92] A foreign pope and foreign papal officers were seen with suspicion by Roman nobles, who were led by Crescentius II to revolt. [223] Since 1542, Charles V and Ferdinand had been able to collect the Common Penny tax, or Trkenhilfe (Turkish aid), designed to protect the Empire against the Ottomans or France. [47] The Hungarian denomination "German Roman Empire" (Hungarian: Nmet-rmai Birodalom) is the shortening of this. In 1648: Saxony, Bavaria, and the Electoral Palatinate. [253] The Netherlands also had envoys in Regensburg. [36] Scholars generally concur in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, describing a gradual assumption of the imperial title and role.[37][30]. [194] In 1555, Paul IV was elected pope and took the side of France, whereupon an exhausted Charles finally gave up his hopes of a world Christian empire.[195][196]. Under the son and successor of Frederick Barbarossa, Henry VI, the Hohenstaufen dynasty reached its apex, with the addition of the Norman kingdom of Sicily through the marriage of Henry VI and Constance of Sicily. The Imperial Diet (Reichstag, or Reichsversammlung) was not a legislative body as is understood today, as its members envisioned it to be more like a central forum, where it was more important to negotiate than to decide. These questions about terms reveal some of the problems involved in the nature and early history of the empire. The German dualism between Austria and Prussia dominated the empire's history after 1740. [5] In 1496, the emperor created a general treasury (Hofkammer) in Innsbruck, which became responsible for all the hereditary lands. "[159], Maximilian's reign also witnessed the gradual emergence of the German common language, with the notable roles of the imperial chancery and the chancery of the Wettin Elector Frederick the Wise. Barring the loss of Franche-Comt in 1678, the external borders of the Empire did not change noticeably from the Peace of Westphalia which acknowledged the exclusion of Switzerland and the Northern Netherlands, and the French protectorate over Alsace to the dissolution of the Empire. [g][120][121], The difficulties in electing the king eventually led to the emergence of a fixed college of prince-electors (Kurfrsten), whose composition and procedures were set forth in the Golden Bull of 1356, issued by Charles IV (reigned 13551378, King of the Romans since 1346), which remained valid until 1806. D. Mapalawak ang kalakalan ng mga bansang Europe. birth. The Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine was replaced by a new union, the German Confederation in 1815, following the end of the Napoleonic Wars. He avoided direct confrontations, which might lead to humiliation if the princes refused to give way. 1.35 million population given for the Duchy of Milan. They also imported German princely families as rulers, although in both cases, this did not produce direct unions. The Ottonians, just like their Carolingian predecessors, developed and refined their material, cultural, intellectual, and administrative inheritance in ways that fit their own time. [163][164][165][166], Terence McIntosh comments that the expansionist, aggressive policy pursued by Maximilian I and Charles V at the inception of the early modern German nation (although not to further the aims specific to the German nation per se), relying on German manpower as well as utilizing fearsome Landsknechte and mercenaries, would affect the way neighbours viewed the German polity, although in the longue dure, Germany tended to be at peace. It was thus increasingly in the king's own interest to strengthen the power of the territories, since the king profited from such a benefit in his own lands as well. Among these heterogeneous and often incompatible views, three may be said to predominate: (1) the papal theory, according to which the empire was the secular arm of the church, set up by the papacy for its own purposes and therefore answerable to the pope and, in the last resort, to be disposed of by him; (2) the imperial, or Frankish, theory, which placed greater emphasis on conquest and hegemony as the source of the emperors power and authority and according to which he was responsible directly to God; and (3) the popular, or Roman, theory (the people at this stage being synonymous with the nobility and in this instance with the Roman nobility), according to which the empire, following the tradition of Roman law, was a delegation of powers by the Roman people. [28][104] The king found himself with almost no political support and was forced to make the famous Walk to Canossa in 1077,[105] by which he achieved a lifting of the excommunication at the price of humiliation. Fearing the power of Henry, the most powerful monarch in Europe since Charlemagne, the other European kings formed an alliance. As part of the Imperial Reform, six Imperial Circles were established in 1500; four more were established in 1512. Conrad ousted the Welfs from their possessions, but after his death in 1152, his nephew Frederick I "Barbarossa" succeeded him and made peace with the Welfs, restoring his cousin Henry the Lion to his albeit diminished possessions. [59][full citation needed][60] By the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians were reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, became the de facto rulers. Pagbagsak ng Kanlurang Imperyong Roman Ang Imperyong Roman ay naghari sa malaking bahagi ng mundo na bumabagtas mula Europe, Gitnang Silangan, at Hilagang bahagi ng Africa sa loob ng higit 500 taon. zur Niederlegung der Krone des Heiligen Rmischen Reiches Wikisource", "Mlyusz (Elemr). The kings beginning with Rudolf I of Germany increasingly relied on the lands of their respective dynasties to support their power. After Richard's death in 1273, Rudolf I of Germany, a minor pro-Hohenstaufen count, was elected. [214][215] Ever since he became King of the Romans in 1486, the Empire provided essential help for his activities in Burgundian Netherlands as well as dealings with Bohemia, Hungary and other eastern polities. The flowering of arts beginning with Otto the Great's reign is known as the Ottonian Renaissance, centered in Germany but also happening in Northern Italy and France. The emperor now was to be elected by a majority rather than by consent of all seven electors. Germany would enjoy relative peace for the next six decades. Augsburg in particular, associated with the reputation of the Fugger, Welser and Baumgartner families, is considered the capital city of early capitalism. The Reichskammergericht and the Auclic Council were the two highest judicial instances in the Old Empire. Frederick supported a succession of antipopes before finally making peace with Alexander in 1177. He lavishly spread French money in the hope of bribing the German electors. Sa kabila ng proklamasyon na ginawa, tanging sa pangalan lamang ang imperyo . Up to that time, he remained in Germany, while a deposed duke, Crescentius II, ruled over Rome and part of Italy, ostensibly in his stead. "Instead, they developed their own institutions to manage what was, effectively, a parallel dynastic-territorial empire and which gave them an overwhelming superiority of resources, in turn allowing them to retain an almost unbroken grip on the imperial title over the next three centuries. It envisioned itself as a dominion for Christendom continuing in the tradition of the ancient Roman Empire and was characterized by strong papal authority. The Holy Roman Empire was neither a centralized state nor a nation-state. The majority of the other German territories, including the other prince-bishoprics, were under 5,000km2 (1,900sqmi), the smallest being those of the Imperial Knights; around 1790 the Knights consisted of 350 families ruling a total of only 5,000km2 (1,900sqmi) collectively. Ascension of Constantius II. Moreover, "Discovery of water routes to India and the New World shifted the focus of European economic development from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic - emphasis shifted from Venice and Genoa to Lisbon and Antwerp. [62][63] The Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. [85][86] During the Ottonian era, imperial women played a prominent role in political and ecclesiastic affairs, often combining their functions as religious leader and advisor, regent or co-ruler, notably Matilda of Ringelheim, Eadgyth, Adelaide of Italy, Theophanu, Matilda of Quedlinburg.[87][88][89][90]. 337 CE. For electors the title became hereditary, and they were given the right to mint coins and to exercise jurisdiction. Each college had one vote. In 1516, Ferdinand II of Aragon, grandfather of the future Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, died. Pagsilang ng Holy Roman Empire Sinasabing bumagsak ang Kanlurang Imperyong Roman dahil sa mga barbaro na sumalakay at nagwasak sa kanilang kabihasnan. Many of these Kleinstaaten ("little states") covered no more than a few square miles, and/or included several non-contiguous pieces, so the Empire was often called a Flickenteppich ("patchwork carpet"). [246][247], The Imperial Diet (Reichstag) resided variously in Paderborn, Bad Lippspringe, Ingelheim am Rhein, Diedenhofen (now Thionville), Aachen, Worms, Forchheim, Trebur, Fritzlar, Ravenna, Quedlinburg, Dortmund, Verona, Minden, Mainz, Frankfurt am Main, Merseburg, Goslar, Wrzburg, Bamberg, Schwbisch Hall, Augsburg, Nuremberg, Quierzy-sur-Oise, Speyer, Gelnhausen, Erfurt, Eger (now Cheb), Esslingen, Lindau, Freiburg, Cologne, Konstanz and Trier before it was moved permanently to Regensburg. [148], The legal reform seriously weakened the ancient Vehmic court (Vehmgericht, or Secret Tribunal of Westphalia, traditionally held to be instituted by Charlemagne but this theory is now considered unlikely. Several Emperors attempted to reverse this steady dilution of their authority but were thwarted both by the papacy and by the princes of the Empire. But their domain, though named the Holy Roman Empire, was much smaller than that of the earlier Roman Empire at its zenith. The Holy Roman Emperor was always a Catholic. Initially used mainly for war services, this new class of people would form the basis for the later knights, another basis of imperial power. Cities that were founded in the 12th century include Freiburg, possibly the economic model for many later cities, and Munich. Emperador ng Holy Roman Empire Pinuno ng France at Spain Politika Hangarin -maibalik ang katanyagan at kapangyarihan na kahalintulad ng naganap sa panahon ng Imperyong Roman.
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