In one classroom study, cues in the form of gendered objects in the room led high school girls to report less interest in taking computer science courses (Master et al., 2015). At other times, features of the learning environment energize a state of wanting to know more, which activates motivational processes. Another important aspect of self-attribution involves beliefs about whether one belongs in a particular learning situation. The effects of social identity on motivation and performance may be positive, as illustrated in the previous section, but negative stereotypes can lead people to underperform on cognitive tasks (see Steele et al., 2002; Walton and Spencer, 2009). Situational interest is malleable, can affect student engagement and learning, and is influenced by the tasks and materials educators use or encourage (Hunsu et al., 2017). Student goal orientation, motivation and learning In middle school, this culturally connected identity is linked to higher grade-point averages among African American (Altschul et al., 2006; Eccles et al., 2006), Latino (Oyserman, 2009), and Native American students in North. Social dimensions of identity are linked to social roles or characteristics that make one recognizable as a member of a group, such as being a woman or a Christian (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). By contrast, learners with performance goals tend to focus on learning individual bits of information separately, which improves speed of learning and immediate recall but may undermine conceptual learning and long-term recall. One reason proposed for such findings is that learners initial interest in the task and desire for success are replaced by their desire for the extrinsic reward (Deci and Ryan, 1985). All learners goals emerge in a particular cultural context. Researchers have explored the mechanisms through which such experiences affect learning. To be negatively affected, a person must be exposed to and perceive a potential cue in the environment and be aware of a stereotype about the social group with which he identifies (Aronson et al., 1999). Teachers may be able to structure learning opportunities that incorporate diverse perspectives related to cultural self-construals in order to engage students more effectively (Morris et al., 2015). Learners who embrace performance-avoidance goals work to avoid looking incompetent or being embarrassed or judged as a failure, whereas those who adopt performance-approach goals seek to appear more competent than others and to be judged socially in a favorable light. Some evidence suggests that it is possible to change students self-attributions so that they adopt a growth mindset, which in turn improves their academic performance (Blackwell et al., 2007). When learners expect to succeed, they are more likely to put forth the effort and persistence needed to perform well. Some students were praised for their ability (well done for being so smart) and others for their effort (well done for working so hard). 2 The 2008 study was a meta-analysis, so the study populations are not described. Although cultures may vary on average in their emphasis on individualism and collectivism, learners may think in either individualistic and collectivistic terms if primed to do so (Oyserman et al., 2009). Motivational models consider motivation a construct to explain the beginning, direction and perseverance of a conduct toward a certain academic goal that centers on inherent questions to the learning process, academic performance and/or the self, social evaluation or to even avoid work. Participating students responded to only 16 of the full set of 81 MSLQ friendships and more flexible action plans for achieving those goals. more negative thoughts about math (Cadinu et al., 2005). Stereotype threat is believed to undermine performance by lowering executive functioning and heightening anxiety and worry about what others will think if the individual fails, which robs the person of working memory resources. (See also the work of Chan and Lai [2006] on students in Hong Kong; Hulleman et al. The concept of value encompasses learners judgments about (1) whether a topic or task is useful for achieving learning or life goals, (2) the importance of a topic or task to the learners identity or sense of self, (3) whether a task is enjoyable or interesting, and (4) whether a task is worth pursuing (Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield and Eccles, 2000). This line of research has also suggested particular characteristics of texts that are associated with learner interest. A key factor in motivation is an individuals mindset: the set of assumptions, values, and beliefs about oneself and the world that influence how one perceives, interprets, and acts upon ones environment (Dweck, 1999). Second, the interventions adopt a student-centric perspective that takes into account the students subjective experience in and out of school. WebLearning to teach is construed as a process of learning to understand, develop, and use oneself effectively. In this chapter, we provide updates and additional elaboration on research in this area. When speaking about basketball, players spoke like expertsthey were confident; they sat up straight and answered in relaxed, even vocal tones. The interventions that have shown sustained effects on aspects of motivation and learning are based on relatively brief activities. For example, they argued that East Asian cultures tend to emphasize collectivistic goals, which promote a comparatively interdependent self-construal in which the self is experienced as socially embedded and ones accomplishments are tied to the community. The full range of factors that may be operating and interacting with one another has yet to be fully examined in real-world environments. Five Counseling Theories and Approaches For example, in 1-year-long study, middle school students attended an eight-session workshop in which they either learned about study skills alone (control condition) or both study skills and research on how the brain improves and grows by working on challenging tasks (the growth mindset condition). For example, children who are motivated tend to be engaged, persist longer, have better learning outcomes, and perform better than other children on standardized achievement tests (Pintrich, 2003). Long-term learning and achievement tend to require not only the learners interest, but also prolonged motivation and persistence. Motivation to learn is fostered for learners of all ages when they perceive the school or learning environment is a place where they belong and when the environment promotes their sense of agency and purpose. Motivational Processes in Learning: A Comparative Analysis of This integration often means taking on the particular knowledge, goals, and practices valued by that group (Nasir, 2002). Practices that help learners recognize the motivational demands required and obstacles to overcome for achieving desired future outcomes also may support goal attainment, as suggested in one study of childrens attempts to learn foreign-language vocabulary words (Gollwitzer et al., 2011). WebIn a substantial review, Murphy and Alexander ( 2000) have identified a corpus of 20 academic achievement-related motivational terms that can be grouped into four clusters: (a) goal, including ego-involved goal, task-involved goal, learning goal, mastery goal, performance goal, work-avoidance goal, and social goal; (b) intrinsic versus extrinsic These findings highlight an important feature of stereotype threat: it is not a characteristic solely of a person or of a context but rather a condition that results from an interaction between the two. Some neurobiological evidence, for example, suggests that compelling narratives that trigger emotions (such as admiration elicited by a story about a young person who becomes a civil rights leader for his community) may activate a mindset focused on a possible future or values. Another approach to overcoming the bias of knowledge is to use strategies that can prevent some of the undesirable consequences of holding negative perspectives. These studies suggest the power of situational interest for engaging students in learning, which has implications for the design of project-based or problem-based learning. Theoretical approaches are an understandably integral part of the therapeutic The report summarized insights on the nature of learning in school-aged children; described principles for the design of effective learning environments; and provided examples of how that could be implemented in the classroom. A mastery-oriented structure in the classroom is positively correlated with high academic competency and negatively related to disruptive behaviors. 6 Motivation to Learn | How People Learn II: Learners, Contexts, 3 Types of Learning and the Developing Brain, Appendix A: History of the How People Learn Studies and Their Use, Appendix B: List of Relevant Reports Published by the National Academies Press, Appendix C: Study Populations in Research on Learning, Appendix D: Committee and Staff Biographies, Pursues opportunities to bolter self-esteem, High grades, performing better than others. Specifically, learners with mastery goals tend to focus on relating new information to existing knowledge as they learn, which supports deep learning and long-term memory for the. Our Motivation Science lab takes an integrative approach, drawing from multiple disciplines (e.g., cognitive, social and educational psychology, cognitive/social Because of the anticipatory nature of this phase, task analysis depends on a number of key sources of motivation, such as goal orientations, interest, task value, and self-efficacy or outcome expectations. A learning orientation benefits from a growth mindset, but highlights the cognitive intention of proactively seeking to learn from any situation. Others have noted that different types of goals, such as mastery and performance goals, have different effects on the cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes that underlie learning as well as on learners outcomes (Ames and Archer, 1988; Covington, 2000; Dweck, 1986). A broad constellation of factors and circumstances may either trigger or undermine students desire. When competition is using as a motivational strategy it arouse aspiration of wining, doing better than others. In an influential paper, Markus and Kitayama (1991) distinguished between independent and interdependent self-construals and proposed that these may be associated with individualistic or collectivistic goals. They can operate separately (e.g., an African American) or in combination (an African American male student) (Oyserman, 2009). mindset (with respect to whether difficult tasks are ones that people like me do) (Immordino-Yang et al., 2012). Although assigning cultural groups to either a collectivist or individualistic category oversimplifies very complex phenomena, several large-sample. Experiential learning People often learn best through experience. However, more experimental research is needed to determine whether interventions designed to influence such mindsets benefit learners. Research in this area suggests that learners who strongly endorse mastery goals tend to enjoy novel and challenging tasks (Pintrich, 2000; Shim et al., 2008; Witkow and Fuligni, 2007; Wolters, 2004), demonstrate a greater willingness to expend effort, and engage higher-order cognitive skills during learning (Ames, 1992; Dweck and Leggett, 1988; Kahraman and Sungur, 2011; Middleton and Midgley, 1997). When learners perceive mastery goals are valued in the classsroom, they are more likely, TABLE 6-2 Achievement Goals and Classroom Climate. For example, in one study of college students, five characteristics of informational texts were associated with both interest and better recall: (1) the information was important, new, and valued; (2) the information was unexpected; (3) the text supported readers in making connections with prior knowledge or experience; (4) the text contained imagery and descriptive language; and (5) the author attempted to relate information to readers background knowledge using, for example, comparisons and analogies (Wade et al., 1999). These kinds of performance-avoidance goals have been associated with maladaptive learning behaviors including task avoidance (Middleton and Midgley, 1997; sixth-grade students), reduced effort (Elliot, 1999), and self-handicapping (Covington, 2000; Midgley et al., 1996). In contrast, they argued, the prevailing North American culture tends to emphasize individualistic goals and an individualistic self-construal that prioritizes unique traits, abilities, and accomplishments tied to the self rather than to the community. According to self-efficacy theory, learning develops from multiple sources, including perceptions of ones past performance, vicarious experiences, performance feedback, affective/physiological states, and social influences. Similar research also points to an apparent shifting between two distinct neural networks that researchers have associated with an action now mindset (with respect to the choices and behaviors for executing a task during learning) and a possible future/values oriented. However, it is not always easy to determine what goals an individual is trying to achieve because learners have multiple goals and their goals may shift in response to events and experiences. Research on how to improve self-efficacy for learning has shown the benefits of several strategies for strengthening students sense of their competence for learning, including setting appropriate goals and breaking down difficult goals into subgoals (Bandura and Schunk, 1981) and providing students with information about their progress, which allows them to attribute success to their own effort (Schunk and Cox, 1986). Research suggests, for example, that aspects of the learning environment can both trigger and sustain a students curiosity and interest in ways that support motivation and learning (Hidi and Renninger, 2006). to learn and their decisions to expend effort on learning, whether in the moment or over time.
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