The first is How do we know that were not missing important information by capping our sample at n when saturation is indicated? Put another way, if we had conducted, say, five more interviews would we have gotten additional and important data? Methods that calculate saturation based on the proportion of new themes relative to the overall number of themes in a dataset (e.g., Guest et al. Content analysis, on the other hand, can be used as a quantitative or qualitative method of data analysis. For our analyses we provide both options for run lengths in our calculationstwo events and three eventsto afford researchers more flexibility. The second question is to a degree related to the first question and pertains to possible order effects. The number of new themes found in the run defines the numerator in the saturation ratio. After weve been through the text, we collate together all the data into groups identified by code. It is usually applied to a set of texts, such as interview transcripts. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Though a study may be powered to certain parameters (quantitative) or have a sample size based on empirical guidance (qualitative), after data collection is completed the resulting data may not conform to either. Estimates are based on (specified) assumptions, and expectations regarding various elements in a particular study. Using the principle of saturation as a foundation, we describe and validate a simple-to-apply method for assessing and reporting on saturation in the context of inductive thematic analyses. For example, Onwuegbuzie and Johnson (2021) note "data analysis in mixed methods research [can be]the most difficult step of the mixed methods research process" (p. 1) and there is a "lack of methodological guidance in the extant literature on these topics" (p. 16). The process can be applied either prospectively during the data collection and analysis process or retrospectively, after data collection and analysis are complete. Both types can be used to get a full picture with samples and populations because the data can be gathered from the same data unit based on whether the variable of interest if categorical or numerical. In addition, we randomly ordered the selected transcripts in each resample to offset any order effect on how/when new codes are discovered. (Under our approach, however, a measure of percent saturation as defined by these authors will not be available.). Note that, as described in the example above, the number of interviews in the run length is not included in the number of interviews to reach the given new information threshold, so the total number of events needed to assess having reached the threshold is two or three more interviews than the given median, depending on the run length of choice. Transcripts were imported into NVivo [33] to facilitate coding and analysis. In this technique, researchers identify key words and then systematically search the corpus of text to find all instances of the word or phrase. Interested in What Is A Normal Speech Recognition Threshold? Calculation is simple. . and How do we know if we have reached saturation? During the past two decades, scholars have conducted empirical research and developed mathematical/statistical models designed to estimate the likely number of qualitative interviews needed to reach saturation for a given study. Using probability sampling methods. Search for patterns or themes in your codes across the different interviews. This is important from an efficiency perspective. The number of themes evident across 1114 interviews corresponded with a median degree of saturation of 87% to 89%. While qualitative research methodologies are now mature, there often remains a lack of fine detail in their description both at submitted peer reviewed article level and in textbooks. Inductive probing was employed throughout all interviews. That said, if . Just to be clear, thematic analysis (TA), like many qualitative research methods, is based on the "constant comparative method". This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Muhammad Jan. University of . What is Quantitative Data? How to Collect and Analyze It | FullStory Next, we look over the codes weve created, identify patterns among them, and start coming up with themes. No, Is the Subject Area "Research design" applicable to this article? Are codes in thematic analysis quantitative or qualitative? That is where we rely on the empirical research that shows the rate at which new information emerges decreases over time and that the most common and salient themes are generated early, assuming that we keep the interview questions, sample characteristics, and other study parameters relatively consistent. Across academic disciplines, and for about the past five decades, the answer to this question has usually revolved around reaching saturation [1, 59]. When to use thematic analysis. Assign preliminary codes to your data in order to describe the content. Advertisement We argue that thematic analysis is a qualitative research method that can be widely used across a range of epistemologies and research questions. We discuss each limitation briefly before introducing our alternative approach. Can I use Thematic Analysis for Mixed-Method approach? If we consider the hypothetical data set used here (see Fig 3) and kept the run length of 2, the 0% new information threshold would have been reached at interview 10+2. How to Do Thematic Analysis | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples / How to Do Thematic analysis describes an iterative process as to how to go from messy data to a map of the most important themes in the data. P-values can be expressed either in absolute terms (e.g., p = .043) or in several commonly used increments (e.g., p < .05, p < .01, etc.). Building on these earlier studies, Hagaman and Wutich [19] calculated saturation within a cross-cultural study and found that fewer than 16 interviews were enough to reach data saturation at each of the four sites but that 2040 interviews were necessary to identify cross-cultural meta-themes across sites. Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Thematic analysis is one of the most frequently used qualitative analysis approaches. This might involve transcribing audio, reading through the text and taking initial notes, and generally looking through the data to get familiar with it. Following a review of the empirical research on data saturation and sample size estimation in qualitative research, we propose an alternative way to evaluate saturation that overcomes the shortcomings and challenges associated with existing methods identified in our review. We offer personal insights and practical examples, while exploring issues of rigor and trustworthiness. It is a method for identifying, analyzing, organizing, describing, and reporting themes found within a data set (Braun & Clarke, 2006). What (exactly) is quantitative data analysis? This is not below our 5% threshold, so we continue. The new information threshold selected affects the point at which saturation is indicated, as one would expect. Yes If you cannot Take the number of new themes in the latest run (four) and divide by the number of themes in the base set (37). What a quantitative researcher accepts, for example, as a large enough effect size or a small enough p-value is a subjective determination and based on convention in a particular field of study. However, thematic analysis is a flexible method that can be adapted to many different kinds of research. In writing up our saturation assessment then, we would say that using a base size 4 we reached the 5% new information threshold at 6+2 interviews. This is done by randomly resampling from the sample with replacement (i.e., an item may be selected more than once in a resample) many times in a way that mimics the original sampling scheme. Interested in ChatGPT For Academic Papers? Finally, thematic analysis can provide insight into the data that may not be otherwise apparent. When conducting an inductive thematic analysis, researchers must decide on an appropriate codebook organizational scheme (see Hennink et al. Abstract. Quantitative variables are interval and ratio. And lastly, these descriptive statistics help. As I mentioned, quantitative analysis is powered by statistical analysis methods.There are two main "branches" of statistical methods that are used - descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. For Dataset 3, two coders conducted this type of inter-coder reliability assessment on 20% of the interviews (a standard, more efficient approach than double-coding all interviews [2]). Revised on Can I use TA? At the 0% new information threshold, saturation was indicated at 12+2 and 16+3, consistent across base sizes. At the 0% new information threshold, the median number of interviews to indicate saturation were again consistent across bases sizes, varying only by the run length. Qualitative variables are nominal and ordinal. Methodology, Fig 1 shows the process, and how base size and run length relate to one another. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232076.t004. We are advocating for similar flexibility and transparency in assessing and reporting on thematic saturation. Thematic analysis is an important tool for researchers to consider when conducting quantitative research. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232076.t003. However, it also involves the risk of missing nuances in the data. We could increase the run length to 3 (or an even larger number), and/or we could set a more stringent new information threshold of no new information. Rewrite and paraphrase texts instantly with our AI-powered paraphrasing tool. We have provided researchers with a method to easily calculate saturation during or after data collection. Take the number of new themes in the latest run (one) divided by the number of themes in the base set (37). What are the benefits of using both qualitative and quantitative research? How to Do Thematic Analysis | Guide & Examples - Scribbr Examples of data analysis methods Thematic analysis is frequently used to analyse qualitative data in psychology, healthcare, social research and beyond. How to Do Thematic Analysis | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples - Scribbr The first is that the results are within the range of what we would have expected based on previous empirical studies. In practice, most researchers agree that combining quantitative and qualitative techniques (sometimes called mixed method research) produces a richer and more comprehensive understanding of a research area. Like all academic texts, writing up a thematic analysis requires an introduction to establish our research question, aims and approach. Hagaman and Wutich (2017) and Francis et al. We also know from previous studies [9, 16, 29] that most novel information in a qualitative dataset is generated early in the process, and generally follows an asymptotic curve, with a relatively sharp decline in new information occurring after just a small number of data collection/analysis events. Merriam, S. B. What is the difference between thematic analysis and content analysis? [26], Fugard & Potts [21], Galvin [20]) ignores the fact that most qualitative research employs non-probabilistic, purposive sampling suited to the nature and objectives of qualitative inquiry [28]. Qualitative data of mixed method requires thematic analysis in one way or another. Thematic analysis can be used to draw conclusions about the data, as well as to identify relationships between the data and other variables. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click You can manage to achieve trustworthiness by . For this reason, we have chosen to test 4, 5, and 6 interviews as base sizes from which to calculate the total number of unique themes to be used in the denominator of the saturation ratio. Thematic analysis is a powerful tool that can be used in quantitative research. Yes Its important to get a thorough overview of all the data we collected before we start analyzing individual items. Say were researching perceptions of climate change among conservative voters aged 50 and up, and we have collected data through a series of interviews. 21st Jun, 2021. The purpose of this article is to guide researchers using thematic analysis as a research method. This is compounded by the fact that detailed descriptions of methods are often omitted from qualitative discussions. It is similar to a literature review, which is a critical survey and assessment of the existing research on your particular topic. Our approach to operationalizing this definition of saturation consists of three distinct elementsthe base size, the run length, and the relative amount of incoming new information, or the new information threshold. Their tool estimates, for example, that to have 80% power to detect two instances of a theme with a 10% prevalence in a population, 29 participants would be required. Abstract. Why Do Cross Country Runners Have Skinny Legs? This reflects similar developments in primary research in mixing methods to examine the relationship between theory and empirical data which . Though it is possible an important theme will emerge later in the process/dataset, the empirical studies referenced above demonstrate that the most prevalent, high-level, themes are identified very early on in data collection, within about six interviews. In other words, what is the minimum number of data collection events (i.e., interviews) we should review/analyze to calculate the amount of information already gained? Results will aim to offer an account of current understandings of patient experiences and perspective regarding PICC, Hickman-type, and Port devices in the context of anti-cancer . Dataset 3. This type of analysis can be particularly useful when the data is complex or when the researcher is looking to uncover relationships between the data and other variables. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click Over the past 20 years, scholars using both empirical research and mathematical/statistical models have made significant contributions to the question: How many qualitative interviews are enough? Assign preliminary codes to your data in order to describe the content. To further illustrate how saturation may have been affected by doing additional interviews, we include 20 interviews in Fig 3. Pay close attention to the data to ensure that youre not picking up on things that are not there or obscuring things that are. Attempting rigour and replicability in thematic analysis of qualitative https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232076.t006. Though interviewing until saturation was recognized as a best practice, it was not a sufficient description of sample size. Base size refers to how we circumscribe the body of information already identified in a dataset to subsequently use as a denominator (similar to Francis et al.s initial analysis sample).
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